The Origin, Formation, and Flourishing of Peking Opera
Chinese opera has a long historical origin. The most widely recognized and complete form of opera (theatrical performance) appeared during the Song Dynasty, but its roots can be traced back to ancient music and dance rituals. From the Song to Yuan and Ming-Qing Dynasties, various forms of drama, such as Zaju, Nanxi, and Chuanqi, flourished one after another. Different regions gradually developed their own distinct operatic styles and musical tones. During the reigns of the Kangxi and Qianlong emperors in the Qing Dynasty, apart from the continuing popularity of Kunshan tone and Yiyang tone, many new local operas emerged, each with different vocal systems. These various tones were later collectively referred to as the “Five Major Tones”, which are: Kun tone, Gao tone, Xiansuo tone, Bangzi tone, and Pihuang tone. During the Qianlong period, the theatrical world saw the so-called “Controversy between the Hua and Ya Schools,” which created favorable conditions for the formation of Peking Opera.
The Formation of Peking Opera through the Anhui Troupes Entering Beijing
The “Hua School” and “Ya School” rivalry facilitated the integration of various vocal arts. The “Ya School” referred to the Kun tone favored by the imperial court and scholars, while the “Hua School”, also known as “Luantan”, referred to other regional operatic styles. Many troupes at the time performed various vocal styles, catering to the preferences and tastes of their audiences. Peking Opera emerged as a new theatrical genre under these conditions, where diverse styles gradually converged. It originated with the Anhui troupes, which came to Beijing from the south. They absorbed Hui tone and Han tone and were influenced by Kun tone, Beijing tone, and Bangzi tone. As a result, Peking Opera developed.
Starting with the Anhui troupes entering Beijing and flourishing, to the fusion of Hui tone and Han tone, and the emergence of representative figures like Lao Sheng San Ding Jia, Peking Opera eventually solidified itself as a new regional genre in Beijing, with the Pihuang tone as its dominant style.
The Anhui Troupes Entering Beijing (1790)
In 1790 (the 55th year of the Qianlong reign), to celebrate the 80th birthday of the Qianlong Emperor, the Sanqing Troupe, a troupe from Zhejiang Salt Administration, entered Beijing to perform. The Sanqing Troupe originated from the Anhui Hui Troupe that performed in the Erhuang tone and was commonly known as “Sanqing Hui”. When performing in Yangzhou, the troupe gradually absorbed other vocal styles, such as Qin tone and Beijing tone. As a result, the Sanqing Troupe became a mixed-style troupe.
At that time, Qin tone, Beijing tone, and Erhuang tone were already popular in Beijing, so the Zhejiang Salt Administration, catering to the tastes of the capital, selected the Sanqing Troupe, known for its proficiency in these three vocal styles. After entering Beijing, the Sanqing Troupe won the admiration of the capital’s audience with its impressive performance and outstanding repertoire. Contemporary records even referred to it as the “Best in the Capital”.
After the Sanqing Troupe, the Siqing Hui and Wuqing Hui Troupes also entered Beijing. After 1795 (the 60th year of the Qianlong reign), many more southern troupes came to Beijing.
These many troupes, upon entering Beijing, competed fiercely on the local theatrical scene. Some gradually declined, while others continued to thrive. In order to stand out in the competitive performance market, most of these troupes performed various vocal styles, including Kunqu and Luantan. By the Jiaqing and Daoguang periods, Hui troupes became increasingly prosperous in Beijing, emerging as a dominant force in the Hua School Luantan.
In the Daoguang period, Liang Shaoren mentioned in his “Two Kinds of Autumn Rain Pavilion Notes” that “The four famous troupes in the capital’s pear garden were the Siqi, Sanqing, Chuntai, and Hechun.” These are what later generations referred to as the “Four Major Hui Troupes”. These four major troupes did not all enter Beijing at the same time, nor were they exclusively from Anhui or focused on the Erhuang tone. It was only later that more Anhui natives moved to Beijing, joined these troupes, and, after development and evolution, they gradually became the Hui tone troupes. For example, the Siqi Troupe originally focused on Kunqu. After Kunqu lost popularity, it slowly shifted to focus on Qin tone and Erhuang tone.
Yu Sansheng, along with the slightly later Zhang Erkui and Cheng Changgeng, was known as the “Three Great Leading Sheng” (also called the “Three Great Masters” or the “Top Three Masters”). They represented the fusion of Hui tone and Han tone, incorporating Kunqu, Gao tone, Bangzi tone, and other regional tones, eventually becoming representative figures of the Peking Opera era. Among the “Three Masters”, Yu Sansheng was from Hubei and followed the Han School; Cheng Changgeng was from Anhui and followed the Hui School; Zhang Erkui, who grew up in Beijing, was able to blend both schools with Beijing-style pronunciation, which was well-received by the Beijing audience and contributed to the Hui-Han fusion and the evolution of Beijing dialect in Peking Opera.
During the Guangxu period, the artist Shen Rongpu painted portraits of thirteen famous actors from the Tongzhi and Guangxu eras, featuring them in their theatrical costumes. The actors, from left to right, include: Hao Lantian, Zhang Shengkui, Mei Qiaoling, Liu Gansan, Yu Ziyun, Cheng Changgeng, Xu Xiaoxiang, Shi Xiaofu, Yang Mingyu, Lu Shengkui, Zhu Lianfen, Tan Xinpei, and Yang Yuelou. This painting, passed down through generations, is known as the “Thirteen Wonders of Tongguang.”
Cheng Changgeng (1812–1882), from Qianshan, Anhui, made his stage debut later than Yu Sansheng and Zhang Erkui, but had a much longer stage career. He was the first laosheng (elder male role) of the Sanqing Troupe and also served as the troupe’s manager for an extended period. Both his artistic and moral qualities were highly regarded, and he was greatly influential to later generations of artists. His singing was characterized by clear enunciation, smooth delivery, and a powerful, resonant tone full of emotion, becoming a model for future performers. While managing the Sanqing Troupe, Cheng was known for his strict rules, setting an example through personal integrity and rejecting personal gain. He cared for his fellow performers and eliminated bad industry habits such as "standing on the stage" (waiting for the audience to request an encore). He was not only skilled at performing laosheng roles but also willingly took on supporting roles in other character categories. The continued prosperity of the Sanqing Troupe, and its important contribution to the formation of Peking Opera, was deeply tied to Cheng Changgeng's high moral character and his effective organizational leadership.
By the mid-19th century, Peking Opera, as a new genre, had established its distinctive artistic characteristics in music, vocal tones, enunciation, accompaniment, physical movements, stage layout, and performance conventions. The formalization of the stage arts and conventions gradually became complete. By the Tongzhi and Guangxu periods, Peking Opera began to mature, occupying a dominant position on Beijing’s stages and starting to spread to other regions, opening the door to a prosperous era.
Diverse Schools and Growing Prosperity
From the late Qing to the early Republic, and through the 1930s and 1940s, Peking Opera gradually prospered, and a large number of accomplished actors emerged in all roles. The variety of artistic schools was one of the key marks of the flourishing of Peking Opera during this period, as it reached its peak. Representational figures, mainly from the laosheng and dan (female) categories, emerged, leaving a profound legacy.
After the death of Cheng Changgeng, the “new Three Great Leading Sheng” passed away, but their artistic influence remained. A new generation of outstanding actors emerged among their successors. During the late Qing and early Republic, the laosheng category saw figures such as Sun Juxian, Wang Guifen, and Tan Xinpei, collectively known as the “new Three Great Leading Sheng” (also referred to as the "Later Three Masters"). They became the representative figures of Peking Opera’s transition from maturity to prosperity. Among the “Later Three Masters,” Wang Guifen was born the latest and died the earliest, Sun Juxian appeared less frequently on stage, and Tan Xinpei had the longest stage career and had the greatest influence on future generations.
Tan Xinpei (1847–1917), from Jiangxia, Hubei, was the son of Tan Zhidao, a Han tone artist who performed old dan (female roles) in Beijing troupes. He was known as “Tan Jiaotian” (the Tan who called out to the heavens), and his stage name, Tan Xinpei, was derived from his father’s title “Little Jiaotian.” He moved to Beijing with his father at a young age, entered a training school, and studied under Cheng Changgeng and Yu Sansheng. By 1900, he gained widespread fame and was referred to as the “King of the Actor’s World” and the “man that everyone in the city was talking about.” Liang Qichao even wrote a poem that said, “In the four seas, one man, Tan Xinpei.” Tan Xinpei absorbed the essence of earlier generations of artists and, building on their performance art, elevated Peking Opera to new heights. Many of the major laosheng schools that emerged during the Republic period were based on the Tan school, and it was said at the time, “No one learns opera without learning Tan.”
In the early stages of Peking Opera’s formation, the most representative actors were primarily laosheng (elder male roles). The theater troupes operated on a system where the most famous actors, especially those in the laosheng category, would take the lead. By the early years of the Xuantong period (1909), Wang Yaoqing became the first to take the initiative in choosing lead roles for dan (female roles) at Dangui Garden, pioneering the practice of having dan roles also selected in this way. By the time of the Republic period, with the emergence of iconic figures such as the “Four Great Dan” and the “Four Great Xusheng”, the stage of Peking Opera began to achieve a balance between the roles of sheng (male) and dan (female).
Mei Lanfang (center), Shang Xiaoyun (left), and Cheng Yanqiu (right) performing together in “The Broken Bridge” (剧照).
The representative figures of laosheng (elder male roles), following the “Three Great Elders” (老三杰), were later succeeded by the “Four Great Xusheng”. Over time, the members of the “Four Great Xusheng” also changed. In the Peking Opera community, there is a saying about the "First Four Great Xusheng" and the "Later Four Great Xusheng." It is generally believed that the “First Four Great Xusheng” refers to the four representative laosheng actors of the 1920s: Yu Shuyan, Yan Jupeng, Gao Qingkui, and Ma Lianliang. By the late 1930s, the first three gradually withdrew from the stage, and the “Later Four Great Xusheng”, led by Ma Lianliang, emerged. This group included Tan Fuying, Yang Baosen, and Xi Xiaober. This view is adopted by the History of Chinese Peking Opera.
Another viewpoint holds that the “Four Great Xusheng” actors went through three stages of evolution: Initially, in the 1920s, the “Four Great Xusheng” referred to Yu Shuyan, Yan Jupeng, Gao Qingkui, and Ma Lianliang, abbreviated as “Yu, Yan, Gao, Ma”. Later, Gao Qingkui left the stage, and Tan Fuying rose to prominence, transforming the “Four Great Xusheng” into “Yu, Ma, Yan, Tan”, a label that lasted for a long time. In the 1940s and 50s, as Yu Shuyan and Yan Jupeng passed away, and Yang Baosen and Xi Xiaober became well-known, the “Four Great Xusheng” once again changed to “Ma, Tan, Yang, Xi”. This view is adopted by the Peking Opera Knowledge Dictionary.
In summary, Yu Shuyan, Yan Jupeng, Gao Qingkui, Ma Lianliang, Tan Fuying, Yang Baosen, and Xi Xiaober were the most representative laosheng actors during the peak of Peking Opera's prosperity.
In addition to the laosheng and dan roles, representative figures from other roles, such as the wusheng (martial male role) Yang Xiaolou, the xiaosheng (young male role) Jiang Miaoxiang and Ye Shenglan, the jing (painted face) roles Jin Shaoshan, Hao Shouchen, Hou Xirui, and Qiu Shengrong, the laodan (elder female role) Gong Yunfu and Li Duokui, and the chou (clown) roles Xiao Changhua and Ye Shengzhang, all created their own distinctive styles, making significant contributions to the dissemination and development of Peking Opera’s various schools of performance.
Popular Nationwide, Known as "National Drama"
One of the major characteristics of Peking Opera's prosperity during the Republic of China period, especially around the May Fourth Movement and the 1920s-30s, was its widespread popularity across China, becoming a central aspect of people's cultural lives. The spread of Peking Opera beyond Beijing began in the late Qing dynasty. For instance, performances were common in places like Tianjin, Hebei, Shandong, and Liaoning by the end of the 19th century. By the 1920s and 1930s, Peking Opera flourished even more. In some places, such as Shanghai and Shandong, its popularity even surpassed that of locally born traditional theater forms.
Aside from Beijing, other major centers for Peking Opera performances included Tianjin, Shanghai, Jinan and Yantai in Shandong, Shenyang and Dalian in Northeast China, and Wuhan in Central China. In these areas, famous Peking Opera performers from Beijing regularly staged shows, and local Peking Opera troupes also began to develop. Notably, Shanghai not only became a major hub for Peking Opera performances but also developed its own distinct "Haipai" (Shanghai School) style.
Why Peking Opera Is Called "National Drama"
Due to its widespread popularity across China and the immense influence it had, sometimes even surpassing local native theater forms, Peking Opera earned the title of “Guoju” (National Drama). With Mei Lanfang performing in countries like Japan, the United States, and the Soviet Union, and Cheng Yanqiu touring Europe, its influence extended overseas. Peking Opera, as the most representative form of Chinese theater, thus earned the title of “National Drama”. However, the term “Guoju” evolved gradually over time.
The term “Guoju” was first introduced in the 1920s during the “Guoju Movement”. The movement was initiated by a group of young scholars who had studied abroad and sought to promote a theoretical approach to drama. In 1928, Tian Han proposed the “New Guoju Movement” to further the development of “Guoju”. However, both the “Guoju Movement” and the “New Guoju Movement” were primarily theoretical and did not specifically refer to Peking Opera or traditional Chinese theater; instead, they hoped to combine the strengths of Western drama and traditional Chinese theater to create a new form of Chinese theater. Although these movements remained at the theoretical level, the term “Guoju” resonated with the prevailing social thoughts and the public mindset at the time, and, along with terms like “Guoyue” (National Music), “Guohua” (National Painting), “Guoshu” (National Martial Arts), and “Guoyi” (Traditional Chinese Medicine), it became widely accepted and adopted by all sectors of society.
By the 1930s, with the continued prosperity of Peking Opera and the expanding scope of its influence, the meaning of “Guoju” shifted from an ideal form of new drama to a synonym for Chinese opera, gradually referring specifically to Peking Opera. During the 1930s and 40s, numerous theatrical organizations and institutions were founded across the country, including troupes, drama societies, and research societies, many of which adopted the name “Guoju”, such as the Beijing National Drama Society, Tianjin Amateur National Drama Research Society, Jinan National Drama Research Society, Dalian Guandong National Drama Society, and Shanghai’s Zhonghua National Drama School, among others. These organizations, mostly centered around Peking Opera, sometimes included other regional forms like Hebei Bangzi, but their activities mainly focused on Peking Opera. The Beijing National Drama Society, founded in December 1931 by Mei Lanfang, Qi Rushan, and Yu Shuyan, was the most influential of these groups. According to its mission, “Guoju” was meant to encompass Peking Opera, Kunqu, and various regional opera forms. However, their actual activities were predominantly focused on Peking Opera, with occasional engagements with other forms.
August 12, 1946, Instruction from the Social Affairs Bureau of Beiping City to the National Drama Guild’s Organizing Committee (Draft) (Collection of the Beijing Archives)
At that time, there was ongoing debate in various sectors of society about whether “Guoju” (National Drama) could specifically refer to Peking Opera. Terms such as “Peking Opera”, “Ping Opera”, “Jingxi”, “Pihuang” (Pihuang opera), and “Old Opera” were all seen in contemporary newspapers and magazines. In the 1940s, however, the view that “Guoju” referred specifically to Peking Opera gradually gained prominence. In September 1945, the Beijing Liyuan Guild, formed by Peking Opera artists, changed its name to the Beiping National Drama Guild, and it was effectively settled that Peking Opera was to be called “Guoju”.
After the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the term “Guoju” continued to be used in Taiwan and overseas regions, while in mainland China, it gradually gave way to the term “Peking Opera”. The central government strengthened its leadership and management over the opera industry, and under the guiding principle of “preserving the essence while making innovations”, it began planned and systematic reforms in Chinese opera, marking the beginning of a new chapter in the development of Peking Opera.
Comments
Post a Comment